The
microbiologist Edouard de Pomiane (1875-1964)
worked at the Pasteur Institute and taught at the Scientific
Institute of Food Hygiene (part of the SSHA: Société Scientifique
d'Hygiène Alimentaire). He was one of those, along with Benjamin
Thompson, Friedrich Accum and Justus Liebig, who proposed using
science to revamp culinary practices.
In
his Traité élémentaire de chimie [Elementary Treatise
on Chemistry], Antoine-Laurent Lavoisier wrote that all
acids contain oxygen, which is not true (Lavoisier, 1793). But this
error does not diminish the admiration that chemists should have for
the father of their discipline, because he pushed back the limits of
the unknown much more than any of his contemporaries, transforming an
experimental knowledge activity (‘chemistry’) into a modern
science (Halleux, ). On another level, at the beginning of the 20th
century, the Polish-born French biologist Edouard de Pomiane confused
art, science, technique and technology in his various publications on
'gastrotechnie' [gastrotechnics], but it would be
unfair if he did not go down in the history of food science as an
energetic educator who strove energetically to rationalise culinary
practices,
in the tradition of many scientists such as Jean d’Arcet,
Etienne-François Geoffroy, Antoine Augustin Parmentier, Benjamin
Thompson, count Rumford, Friedrich Accum, Louis Jacques Thenard,
Henri Braconnot and others.
From
Poland to the Scientific Institute of Food Hygiene
Edouard
Pozerski de Pomian, known as Edouard de Pomiane, was born in Paris on
20 April 1875, at 28 rue des Abbesses, at the home of his parents,
Polish noblemen who had fled to France because they had taken part in
the Polish revolution of 1863. He studied at the Polish School in
Paris, then at the Lycée Condorcet, and passed his baccalauréat ès
sciences in 1894. He failed the entrance examination for the Ecole
Polytechnique and studied science at the Faculty of Paris from 1894
to 1896. After obtaining his bachelor's degree in natural sciences,
he worked as a volunteer researcher, then as an assistant preparator
in Albert Dastre's physiology laboratory at the Sorbonne (Girard,
2004; Froger, 2004). During this period, he gave lectures at the
newly-created Universités Populaires, which organised free evening
classes open to all.
This
was the start of his research into digestive enzymes and the
development of his taste for cooking: "My master Dastre often
came to keep me company, discussing culinary techniques with me. We
made sauces, we made pastry doughs and we decreed that cooking was a
science. These were the beginnings of all my experiments in
gastrotechnics, the basic science of the art of cooking"
(Pomiane, 1954).
Figure
1. Edouard Pozerksi de Pomian, said Edouard de Pomiane (1875-1964).
From
1897 to 1902, he studied medicine at the Faculty of Medicine in
Paris, joining the Institut Pasteur in 1901 on his return from an
internship in the marine biology laboratory at Roscoff, as a
preparator in the physiology department, directed by C. Delezenne. In
1902, he defended his doctoral thesis in medicine: L'action
favorante du suc intestinal sur le pouvoir amylolytique du suc
pancréatique et de la salive [The favourable action of
intestinal juice on the amylolytic power of pancreatic juice and
saliva]. Then, in 1908, he wrote his doctoral thesis in natural
sciences: Contribution à l'étude physiologique de la papaïne
[Contribution to the physiological study of papain].
In 1910, he became an assistant in the laboratory where he worked.
His work focused on pancreatic and intestinal juices, blood ferments,
immunity and proteolytic ferments. He was also involved in the work
of other laboratories at the Institut Pasteur: studies of the
intestinal flora of vertebrates with Elie Metchnikoff; research into
new theoretical bases for a general concept of antibodies and their
action, with M. Nicolle. In 1913, he and his wife wrote two memoirs
on immunity to the anticoagulant action of peptone.
This
work, which was the subject of some sixty publications, was rewarded
with the Monthion prize from the Académie des Sciences in 1909, and
the Laborde prize from the Société de biologie in 1912. His career
came to an end with the outbreak of the First World War: from 1914 to
1918, he was initially a medical officer, then attached to various
medical units at the front. In particular, he was assigned to
Auto-Chir N°22 (vans equipped by the Institut Pasteur and the
Institut Curie with radiographic and microbiological equipment).
Returning to the Institut Pasteur in 1919, he studied with F.
d'Hérelle the behaviour of a bacteriophage under the influence of
temperature changes, and continued his research into ferments and the
stages of digestion. He taught bacteriology on a voluntary basis at
the Hôpital-Ecole Edith Clavet. From 1921, he was Professor at the
Institut Scientifique d'Hygiène Alimentaire.
He
published a number of works, gave many lectures and wrote many
articles, with or without Docteur de Pomiane's signature, and finally
authored a medical manual on food hygiene, which he published under
his real name. The term "gastrotechnie" (which will
even appeared in the Larousse dictionary, where the word
"gastronomie" was absent at the same time) appears
in his book Bien manger pour bien vivre. Le code de la bonne chère
(Pomiane, 1922).
From
1922 onwards, he taught at the Enseignement supérieur de la cuisine
course run by the sous-secrétariat de l'Enseignement technique. From
1923 to 1929, he gave weekly radio talks on Radio-Paris
(the first French radio),
as well as lectures, in particular popularising the work of
Louis Pasteur.
These
years saw the publication of many books : La cuisine en six
leçons (Pomiane, 1926), Travaux pratiques de cuisine
raisonnée (Pomiane, 1928), Cuisine juive (Pomiane, 1929),
La cuisine et le raisonnement (Pomiane, 1930), La cuisine
pour la femme du monde (Pomiane, 1932), Vingt plats qui
donnent la goutte (Pomiane, 1935), 365 menus, 365 recettes
(Pomiane, 1938), Le carnet d'Anna (Pomiane, 1938).
In
his books, he denounced one of the most common ailments: poorly
prepared food. "As a physiologist, I studied cooking as a
science: I did gastrotechnics", he wrote in Vingt plats
qui donnent la goutte. This latest work is full of humour... like
all the others. Was Pomiane influenced by the artists he rubbed
shoulders with when he lived with his parents in Montmartre? His home
adjoined the Lapin Agile cabaret. He was himself a painter and
musician, and married a musician.
Having
retired as head of department at the Pasteur Institute in 1940,
during the German Occupation he organised guided tours of the Pasteur
Institute, as well as lectures at the Scientific Institute of Food
Hygiene, with cooking demonstrations, on how to eat despite severe
restrictions, making the best use of the rations allocated and the
substitute products that could be purchased without a ticket. Because
of the gas shortage, he encouraged housewives to cook with as little
energy as possible, using economical utensils and appliances such as
the "Norwegian pot". His book Cuisine et restrictions
(Pomiane, 1940) dates from this period, but he also published
numerous works on food hygiene. For example, his Vingt plats qui
donnent la goutte [Twenty dishes that give you the gout],
written for Laboratoires Midy, was followed during this period by La
cuisine au compte goutte [Drip-fed cooking] (Pomiane,
1939), Réflexes et réflexions devant la nappe (Pomiane,
1940), Manger quand même (Pomiane, 1941), Conserves
familiales et microbie alimentaire (Pomiane, 1943).
Although
he stopped teaching at the Institut scientifique d'hygiène
alimentaire in 1943, he continued to publish: La cuisine pour les
estomacs délicats (Pomiane, 1949), Radio Cuisine (2
volumes) (Pomiane, 1949), La physique de la cuisine et son art
(Pomiane, 1950), La cuisine polonaise vue des bords de la Seine
(Pomiane, 1952), La microbie alimentaire (Pomiane, 1957),
La cuisine en dix minutes (Pomiane, 1961). He died in Paris on
26 January 1964 in a traffic accident, having published some thirty
culinary works, translated into eight languages (Ginsburg, 2002;
Girard, 1964; Girard, 1989; Girard, 1989; Barneoud, 1910).
Pomiane's
legacy
One
of Pomiane's Polish friends, Tadeusz Przypkowski, had an astronomy
museum in his castle at Jedrzejow. He doubled it with a gastronomy
museum to honour Edouard de Pomiane, and the estate and castle are
now nationalised and open to the public. In the same spirit,
Pzypkowski created the Pomiane Order of Poland (a very closed
gastronomic order, since the founder only inducted 16 members). In
France, the Prix Edouard de Pomiane was founded in 1969 by the Guide
du Médecin, in memory of the man whom his colleagues had
nicknamed the "prince of gastronome doctors" and whom his
friends simply called "Poger". In 1990, the prize was
renamed the Prix Edouard de Pomiane-Edouard Longue, to associate the
uncle and nephew, who upheld the same values.
Although
the "de Pomiane" spirit was perpetuated, the
gastro-technical idea under the name ‘gastrotechnie’ did
not survive its founder. Why did this happen? I propose to examine
this disappearance by analysing an article entitled Gastrotechnie.
La cuisine est un laboratoire [Gastrotechnics. The kitchen is
a laboratory], which Pomiane published in 1948 in the magazine
Atomes (Pomiane, 1949). This article begins with:
"The
study of the phenomena of digestion constitutes a special chapter in
a treatise on human physiology. It sets out successively :
1.
the chemical composition of foods ;
2.
the nature of the digestive ferments and the secretion of the juices
that contain them
3.
the digestion of food by the various secretions from the saliva,
stomach, pancreas, liver and intestine
4.
absorption of digested food by the intestinal mucosa
5.
assimilation by the organism.
Presented
in this way, the study appears to be completely comprehensive. In
reality, it is not. Food is considered to be a substance, passing
directly from the market where it was bought to the table where it is
to be eaten. However, before being eaten, food remains in a
laboratory, sometimes for a very long time, where it undergoes
numerous manipulations and sometimes profound transformations. This
laboratory is the kitchen.
In
the kitchen, foods are transformed to such an extent that some of
them, which are indigestible, become digestible after cooking, while
others, which are perfect foods, become almost toxic substances.
However,
in books on physiology, there is no mention of the transformations
undergone by foods in the kitchen. These transformations are
profound: physical, chemical and biological. Studying them is
essential to understanding human nutrition.
For
all these data developed in an experimental physiology laboratory, we
have proposed the name of gastrotechnics".
In
La physique de la cuisine et son art, Pomiane completes this
description, explaining that cooking can be simplified and
rationalised, so that it can be "considered a scientific
technique", that "gastrotechnics is a science" and,
further on, that it is an "applied science "1.
These
quotations, and that from one of his first books ("cooking is a
science") show that Pomiane confuses sciences of nature,
technology, technique, and art. In passing, let’s add that the word
laboratory is used for sausage makers or pastry chefs, not being
restricted to science.
But let us show why cooking has nothing
to do with science, why cooking is not a science of nature. Indeed
sciences of nature have been defined as the exploration of the
mechanisms of phenomena. Galileo Galilei wrote: "Science
brings to light, through the relationships of empirical causality, a
constant proportionality, the law, and this insofar as it gives these
empirical relationships a quantitative and geometric expression")
(Galilei, 1623). Now, technology is something different, as the word
is defined (etymology and dictionaries) as the exploration of
techniques in view of improvemnt them. And finally technique
(cooking, in this case) aims at producing dishes.
This
explains why "scientific technique" is a misnomer. So is
the idea that cooking is a science, since cooking is a production of
food, not a search for knowledge. The idea put forward by Pomiane
that gastrotechnics (today we would say "culinary technology")
is an "applied science" is also wrong: throughout his life,
Louis Pasteur made it clear that the expression "applied
science" is an oxymoron. For example, "Remember that
there are no applied sciences but only applications of science"
(Pasteur, 1872). Or: "An essentially false idea has been
mixed up in the many discussions raised by the creation of a
vocational secondary education; it is that there are applied
sciences. There are no applied sciences. The very union of these
words is shocking. But there are applications of science, which is
quite different. Then, alongside the applications of science, there
is the trade, represented by the more or less skilled worker.
Teaching a trade has a name in every language. In ours, it is called
apprenticeship, which nothing in the world can replace"
(Pasteur, 1863). Or even: "No, a thousand times no, there is
no category of sciences to which we can give the name of applied
sciences. There is science and the applications of science, linked
together like fruit to the tree that bore it" (Pasteur,
1871).
In
the same book, Pomiane defines gastronomy as the art of preparing
food ("Gastronomy is the art of eating well. Gastrotechnics
is the scientific basis of this art"), but this is a very
personal definition with no legitimity, since the word "gastronomie",
introduced in 1800 by Joseph Berchoux (1765-1833), was given its
general meaning by the lawyer Jean-Anthelme Brillat-Savarin
(1755-1826) in the following form: "the reasoned knowledge of
everything related to man as he eats" (Brillat-Savarin,
1825).
All
in all, the word "gastrotechnics" was "badly
constructed", said even Pomiane. One wonders whether this defect
was the cause of its extinction? For sure, when the scientific
discipline today called "molecular and physical gastronomy"
was introduced, by This and Kurti, they had in mind to avoid the
mistakes made by Pomiane and others : it was defined as a
science of nature, not as a technology nor a technique. And since
that time, it is clear that expressions such as ‘scientific
cooking’ have no meaning.
Science
in the kitchen?
In
his publications, Pomiane cites few predecessors, which is partly
justified because he was the first to use the word "gastrotechnics".
But was the activity he led his own creation?
The
science of food was not born with him, since as early as the 2nd
century AD, the anonymous author of the London Papyrus used a balance
to determine whether fermented meat was lighter than fresh meat, due
to an "emanation".
Much
later, in France, Denis Papin developed his ‘digester’ for
extracting gelatin from bones (Darcet, 1830 ; Dere, 1990), and
many doctors, pharmacists and chemists became concerned with food.
Antoine Augustin Parmentier (1737-1813) was interested in flour,
potatoes and wine; Antoine Laurent de Lavoisier (1743-1794) sought to
determine the quantity of meat that should be used to produce
"suitable" stock (he wrote himself that this work was of
technological nature) (Lavoisier, 1783).
Alongside
this work on food science, a number of scientists took a particular
interest in culinary processes. In 1794, Benjamin Thompson
(1753-1814), Count Rumford, published a 400-page essay entitled On
the Constuction of Kitchen Fireplaces and Kitchen Ustensils together
with Remarks and Observations relating to the various Processes of
Cookery and Proposals for improving that most useful Art. Born in
America, an English soldier, statesman, physicist, inventor and
social reformer, Rumford was accused of espionage in 1788, fled
America and arrived in London, where he took British nationality, and
later became advisor to the Elector of Bavaria and head of his
military services. Sent to London as Minister Plenipotentiary in
1798, King George III refused to consider one of his subjects as a
foreign minister. Rumford then drew up plans for the Royal
Institution of Great Britain, which he founded in 1799 with Sir
Joseph Bank, who was then president of the Royal Society.
A
little later, Fredrick Accum published Culinary Chemistry,
Exhibiting The Scientific Principles of Cookery, With Concise
Instructions for Preparing Good and Wholesome Pickles, Vinegar,
Preserves, Fruit Jellies, Marmalades, And Various Other Alimentary
Substances Employed In Domestic Economy, With Observations On the
Chemical Constitution And Nutritive Qualities of Different Kinds of
Food, With Copper Plates (Accum, 1821). Friedrich Christian Accum
was born in Buckeburg, Westphalia, in 1769. He arrived in London in
1793, and soon joined forces with the publisher Ackermann to
introduce the idea of gas for lighting English cities. In 1810, when
the London Chartered Gaslight and Coke Company was founded, Accum was
one of its engineers. He was a member of the Royal Irish Academy, the
Linnaean Society and the Royal Academy of Sciences in Berlin.
In
his work published in 1821, Accum wrote: "The art of
preparing good, healthy food is certainly a branch of chemistry; the
kitchen is a chemical laboratory, all the processes used to make food
substances fit for consumption are chemical processes, and much
material and labour would be saved if those who practise this art
knew certain simple chemical facts, which always give certain
results".
We
should not fail to compare this quotation with that of
Brillat-Savarin: "This misfortune befell you because you
neglected the theory, the importance of which you did not fully
appreciate. You are a little obstinate, and I find it difficult to
make you understand that the phenomena that occur in your laboratory
are nothing other than the execution of the eternal laws of nature;
and that certain things that you do without paying attention, and
only because you have seen others do them, are no less derived from
the highest abstractions of science".
Accum
gave out recipes. For example: "How do you make ketchup?
Crush a gallon of ripe tomatoes; add a pound of salt, squeeze out the
juice and add a quarter of a pound of anchovies to each quarter of
juice, together with two ounces of shallots and an ounce of crushed
black pepper ; Bring the mixture to a simmer for a quarter of an
hour, then strain it and add a quarter of a pound of mace, the same
amount of all spices, ginger and nutmeg, and half a drachma of
cochineal; leave to simmer for twenty minutes, then pour it through a
cloth and bottle it."
Such
a recipe would not have been disowned by Pomiane, who gave, among a
thousand others, this one: "Sauce meurette. Casserole. Red
wine with herbs and spices: onions, shallots, thyme, bay leaves,
pepper, nutmeg, etc. Boil for 45 minutes. Add several knobs of butter
mixed with its volume of flour (beurre manié). Leave all the butter
to melt over a very low heat. The flour turns into starch and binds
the sauce. Cognac or not".
While
Rumford and Accum did not claim to be the first to introduce science
into cooking, Justus von Liebig (1803-1873) was more pretentious (and
wrong) (Brock, 1997). Liebig himself said that he had learnt French
from the wife of one of the Duke of Hesse-Darmstadt's cooks, and that
he had then become fascinated by culinary operations: "From
there, I retained a taste for cooking, and, in my spare time, I
occupied myself with culinary mysteries" (Liebig, 1865).
Having
begun his remarkable career in chemistry by analysing the elemental
composition of various animal and plant fractions (mass of carbon,
oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen in these fractions, identification of
mineral salts, etc.), Liebig then sought to apply these results to
understanding plant growth, respiration and, more generally, animal
and plant physiology (Brock, 1993). For example, his analyses of meat
led him to assume that the essential nutrients in meat were not in
the muscle fibres, but in the fluids, which were lost during roasting
or broth-making (which is wrong). Having studied mineral salts and
found them in large numbers in meat broth, which was prized for its
nutritional virtues, he concluded that gelatine was not used to form
flesh, and that meat should be eaten with its juices, because
inorganic compounds were essential nutrients for the formation of
flesh. His theory became known as the "mineral theory".
An
article published in 1847 (Liebig, 1847; This and Bram, 2003) was
very influential: the Lancet presented the Chemische Briefe
as giving "the true principles of cookery". However, there
were sceptics. Half a century before Liebig, Rumford had demonstrated
that meats cooked at a lower temperature were juicier than those
roasted directly. This did not prevent Pomiane from writing
incorrectly (Dujon, 1961): "He [Liebig] was the first to
apply science to the phenomena of organic life".
Minor
errors, corrected by scientific progress
In
his 1948 article, Pomiane developed his idea of cooking: culinary
technique would be based on "four types of cooking" and
"three ways of combining" sauces. Unfortunately, this
classification is too restrictive.
First,
let's look at the question of types of cooking. Pomiane writes:
"Gastrotechnology
has grouped all the methods of cooking food into four cooking
techniques: 1° Cooking in water; 2° Cooking in fat or frying; 3°
Cooking either over an open fire or in an atmosphere of dry heat:
grilling and roasting; 4° Steaming or steaming".
It
is strange that Pomiane, being a student of Metchnikoff, who
introduced the technique, he did not consider high-pressure cooking
(Galazka and Ledward, 1995), which was, admittedly, developed for
sterilisation purposes, not cooking. He also failed to include in his
list chemical processes such as the use of ethanol, salt and sugar,
and the use of radiation sources other than infrared, which are
included in the third type. To Pomiane's credit, radar had just been
developed and its culinary applications had remained a secret.
How
can Pomiane's classification be corrected? In 1997, a better
classification of cooking methods based on the type of heat
transmission was proposed (This, 1997): by conduction (contact with a
solid, liquid or gas, by heating the food to a temperature above or
below 100°C), by radiation (whatever the wavelength), by physical
means (pressure, etc.) or chemical means (ethanol, etc.). The
composition of the 12 or so types of single cooking leads to a total
of 12x12 'double' cooking methods, i.e. 144, many of which have never
been tested and deserve to be.
On
the other hand, the "three modes of sauce binding"
mentioned by Pomiane are binding by flour, by emulsion and by egg
yolk. We now know that sauce bindings are more complex: using the
formalism for describing complex dispersed systems introduced in 2003
(This,
2003), a classification of classic French sauces has been carried
out. This formalism is based on the use of four letters (G for gas, O
for oil, W
for water, S for solid) and connectors (/ for "dispersed in",
+ for "mixed with", @
for "included in", and σ
for "superimposed on"). Using these symbols, formulae are
constructed to describe the physical structure of food preparations.
For example, the formula O/W refers to oil-in-water emulsions, S1/S2
to solid suspensions, etc. The 451
sauces described in the Répertoire
général de cuisine
(Gringoire
and Saulnier,
1901) can be broken down into 14
physico-chemical types, but the addition of three important cookery
works (Guide
culinaire
(Escoffier
et al.,
1921), L'art
des sauces
(Académie
des gastronomes et Académie culinaire de France,
1991) and L'Art
de la grande cuisine française au XIXe siècle,
by Antonin Carême (Carême,
1847)) brings the number of physico-chemical types of classic French
sauces to 23: W,
O,
W/S,
O/W,
S/W,
(O+S)/W,
(W/S)/W,
O
+ (W/S),
(G+O)/W,
(G+O+S)/W,
(O+(W/S))/W,
(S+(W/S))/W,
((W+S)/O)/S,
(O+S+(W/S))/W,
((W/S)+(W@S))/W,
(O
+ (W/S)/W)/S,
((O+(W/S))/W)/S,
(O
/ W)
+ ((G + O)
/ W),
(O
+ (W
/ S) + (W
@
S)) / W,
(S + (W
/ S + (W
@
S)) / W,
(((W
/ S) + (W
@
S)) / W)
/ S, (O
+ S + (W
/ S) + (W
@
S)) / W,
(O
+ S + ((G + O)
/ W))
/ W.
Here again, tradition does not close the list of possibilities,
because sauces as simple as "foamed
veloutés"
(formula (G+O+W1/S)/W2)
are absent, for reasons that have nothing to do with their physical
stability; it
is simply that the empirical development of cooking did not find
them.
Finally,
we will pass over a series of errors of detail contained in the 1948
article ("Most proteins undergo hardening and coagulation
during cooking. This starts at around 56°C. It is complete at 65°C".
Or "Cellulose softens during cooking. It does not undergo any
chemical transformation." Or also "Solid fats melt
at around 50°C. Liquid or melted fats subjected to heat undergo a
considerable rise in temperature"); like the many errors
that appear in Pomiane's books (the theory that egg whites should be
beaten in copper pans with an iron whisk, so that a pile effect
occurs), they reveal not the weakness of Pomiane's thinking, but
rather the remarkable progress made in food science over the last
fifty years.
A
remarkable gastronome, an unclassifiable biologist, an outspoken
writer and lecturer, a captivating teacher (according to many of
those who attended his courses), Pomiane was a driving force in
French food education for half a century. Above all, he was an
extraordinary populariser, whose books were bestsellers.
If
we don't forget that "Man is only as good as his ability to
admire" (Renan, 1859) and that "We all scale each other"
(Montaigne, 1988), we have celebrated the centenary of the Société
scientifique d'hygiène alimentaire by giving Pomiane a very special
place.
Figure
2. A book by Edouard de Pomiane.
References
ACADEMIE
DES GASTRONOMES, ACADEMIE CULINAIRE, 1991, L’art des sauces,
J. T. Lanore, Paris.
ACCUM
F. C., 1821, Culinary Chemistry,
Exhibiting The Scientific Principles of Cookery, With Concise
Instructions for Preparing Good and Wholesome Pickles, Vinegar,
Conserves, Fruit Jellies, Marmalades, And Various Other Alimentary
Substances Employed In Domestic Economy, With Observations On the
Chemical Constitution And Nutritive Qualities of Different Kinds of
Food, With Copper Plates, R. Ackermann,
101 Strand London.
ANON.,
s.d., Pozerki de Pomiane, Edouard .
Souvenir d'un demi siècle à l'Institut Pasteur,
Paris.
BARNEOUD,
1910, Titres
et travaux scientifiques du Dr E. Pozerski.
Laval.
BRILLAT-SAVARIN
J. A., 1825, La
Physiologie du goût,
Paris.
BROCK
W. H., 1993, Liebig on toast, Chemistry
& Industry, 718.
BROCK
W. H., 1997, Justus von Liebig :
the Chemical Gatekeeper, Cambridge
University Press, 215-249.
CAREME
A, 1847, L’art
de la grande cuisine française au XIX e siècle,
Kerangue
et Pollies, Paris, t. III.
DARCET
J.
J. P., 1830, La
gélatine extraite des os et les diverses applications qu’on peut
en faire à l’économie domestique,
Chez M. Moleon, 16.
DERE
A.. C., 1990, La
gélatine, aliment nouveau du début du XIXe siècle .
In : L’agro-alimentaire :
histoire et modernité,
Gérard Emptoz (ed.), Cahiers François Viète N°1,Centre François
Viète et ENITIAA.
DUJON
M. M., 1961, Autour d’une bonne table, Mirambeau et Cie,
pour la Compagnie française des produits Liebig (préface de E. de
Pomiane), Paris, 4.
ESCOFFIER
A., 1921, Guide
culinaire,
Flammarion, Paris.
FROGER
O., 2004, Edouard de Pomiane. Scientifique et gastronome (1875-1964),
Bull. soc. Hist. & arch. du XVème arrdt de Paris, 24,
57-60.
GALAZKA
V. B. LEDWARD D. A., 1995, Developments
in high pressure food processing, Food
Technology International Europe, 123-125.
GALILEI
G., 1623) L’essayeur. In Galilée ou l’avenir de la
science, Seghers, Paris, 133-134.
GINSBURG
R., 2002, De bouche à oreille, 6,
8-9.
GIRARD
H., 1964, Ann. Inst. Pasteur, 106(6),
813-818.
GIRARD
H., 1898, Hist. Sci. méd., 23(1),
45-50.
GIRARD
H., 2004, Edouard de Pomiane. Scientifique et gastronome (1875-1964),
Bull. soc. Hist. & arch. du XVème arrdt de Paris, 24,
55-57.
GRINGOIRE
L., SAULNIER T., 1901, Répertoire général de cuisine,
Flammarion, Paris.
LAVOISIER
A. L., 1793,Traité élémentaire de chimie, Cuchet, Paris.
LAVOISIER
A. L., Mémoire sur le degré de force que doit avoir le bouillon,
sur sa pesanteur spécifique et sur la quantité de matière
gélatineuse solide qu’il contient. In :
Oeuvres
complètes,
t. III (Expériences
de novembre 1783), 563-578.
LIEBIG
J., 1847, Ueber die Bestandteiler der
flüssigkeiten des Fleisches, Ann.
Chem. 62,
257-369.
LIEBIG
J., 1866, A cup of coffee, Pharmaceutical
Journal 1 (1865-6), 412-416. In
: Dingler polytechnisches Journal 3 (1866), 466.
MONTAIGNE
M.,
1988, cité par J. Largeault, Principes
classiques d’interprétation de la nature,
Vrin, Paris.
PASTEUR
L., 1863. Note sur l’enseignement professionnel, adressée à
Victor Duruy, 10 nov 1863. In : Œuvres complètes, t.
VII, 187.
PASTEUR
L., 1871, Pourquoi la France n’a pas trouvé d’homme supérieur
au moment du péril, Salut public, Lyon, mars 1871. In :
Œuvres complètes, t. VII, 215.
PASTEUR
L., 1872, Pourquoi le goût de la vendange diffère de celui du
raisin. In : Comptes rendus du Congrès viticole et
séricicole de Lyon, 9-14 septembre 1872, 45-49 (séance du 11
septembre 1872), in Œuvres complètes, t. III, Masson, Paris
(1924), 464.
Pomiane
E. , 1929, Cuisine juive, Albin Michel, Paris.
Pomiane
E., 1922, Bien manger pour bien vivre. Le code de la bonne chère,
Albin Michel, Paris.
Pomiane
E., 1926, La cuisine en six leçons, Paul Martial, Paris.
Pomiane
E., 1928, Travaux pratiques de cuisine raisonnée, Librairie
Le François, Paris.
Pomiane
E., 1931, La cuisine et le raisonnement, Société du gaz de
Paris, Paris.
Pomiane
E., 1935, Vingt plats qui donnent la goutte, Midy, Paris.
Pomiane
E., 1938, 365 menus, 365 recettes, Albin Michel, Paris.
Pomiane
E., 1938, Le carnet d’Anna, Paul Martial , Paris.
Pomiane
E., 1939, La cuisine au compte goutte, 47 adaptations
gastronomiques, Midy, Paris.
Pomiane
E., 1940, Cuisine et restrictions, Corrêa, Paris.
Pomiane
E., 1940, Réflexes et réflexions devant la nappe, Paul
Martial, Paris.
Pomiane
E., 1941, Manger quand même, Corrêa, Paris.
Pomiane
E., 1943, Conserves familiales et microbie alimentaire, Albin
Michel, Paris.
Pomiane
E., 1948, Gastrotechnie. La cuisine est un laboratoire,
Atomes, N°29, 255-258.
Pomiane
E., 1949, La cuisine pour les estomacs délicats, Cuisine et
vins de France, Paris.
Pomiane
E., 1949, Radio cuisine, Albin Michel, Paris.
Pomiane
E., 1950, La physique de la cuisine et son art, Albin Michel,
Paris.
Pomiane
E., 1952, La cuisine polonaise vue des bords de la Seine,
Société polonaise des amis du livre, Paris.
Pomiane
E., 1955, Des honnêtes voluptés de bouche et d’amour,
Bernard Grasset, Seghers, Paris.
Pomiane
E., 1957, La microbie alimentaire, Calmann-Levy, Paris.
Pomiane
E., 1961, La cuisine en dix minutes, Calmann-Lévy, Paris.
RENAN
E., 1859, Souvenirs
d’enfance et de jeunesse,
Calmann-Lévy, Paris.
THIS
H., 1997, Cuisine rénovée, Pour la Science, 239,
16
THIS
H., 2003, La gastronomie moléculaire, Sciences des aliments,
23(2), 187-198.
THIS
H., BRAM G., 2003, Justus Liebig et les extraits de viande, Sciences
des aliments, 23,
577-587.
1
« The starting point of this applied science is knowledge of
the chemical composition of the very many foods we use. In fact,
their number is limited if we adopt the classification used by
chemists. »
